Difference equations, as discrete analogues of differential equations, form a fundamental mathematical framework for describing systems that evolve incrementally over time or space. Coupled with ...

Difference equations, serving as the discrete analogue to differential equations, have long been a linchpin in the study of dynamic systems. These equations define sequences recursively, and their ...

This paper considers the estimation of the parameters of general systems of stochastic differential-difference equations in which the lag parameters themselves are treated as unknown and are not ...